Algeria ECONOMY

Salient Features: State-directed economic system undergoing modest market-oriented structural adjustment and decentralization. Central government retains ownership of more than 450 state-owned enterprises. Economy dominated by hydrocarbon sector, mainly oil, but diversifying into natural gas and refined products. Underinvestment in agriculture and other nonoil sectors.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): In 1992 estimated at US$42 billion. GDP grew at average annual rate of 6.5 percent during 1970s and 4.5 percent during first half of 1980s, largely as result of increasing oil revenues. Economy contracted sharply during latter half of 1980s and early 1990s; per capita GDP declined from US$2,752 in 1987 to US$1,570 in 1992.

Minerals: Hydrocarbon sector, mainstay of economy and main source of exports, constituted 23 percent of GDP in 1990. Exports include crude oil, refined petroleum products, and gas. Nonfuel minerals include high-grade iron ore, phosphate, mercury, and zinc.

Energy: Electricity supplied mainly by gas powered plants. Overall energy consumption quadrupled between 1970s and early 1990s.

Industry: Manufacturing constituted 10 percent of GDP in 1990. Investment concentrated in state-owned heavy industry, mainly steel.

Agriculture: Variably estimated to account for 7 to 11 percent of GDP in 1990 and employing more than 22 percent of labor force. Arable land restricted mainly to coastal strip in north; pastoral agriculture dominant farther south. Production mainly grains, dominated by wheat and barley. Other main crops include grapes, citrus fruits, vegetables, olives, tobacco, and dates. Livestock and poultry production significant but heavily dependent on imported feed. Local consumption heavily reliant on food imports. Landholding, agricultural marketing, and distribution undergoing gradual decentralization and reprivatization.

Foreign Trade: Total exports US$12.7 billion in 1990, of which 96 percent hydrocarbons. Nonhydrocarbon exports include wine, metals and metal products, phosphates, fruits and vegetables, and iron ore. Total imports US$9.8 billion in 1989; include foodstuffs, semifinished goods, industrial and consumer goods.

External Debt: US$26 billion in 1992, mainly held by public sector. Debt service exceeded US$7 billion in 1991. International Monetary Fund standby agreement negotiated in May 1994.

Currency and Exchange Rate: Algerian dinar (DA); US$1 = DA40.7 in October 1994.

Fiscal Year: Calendar year.

Data as of December 1993

Algeria: Government and Politics

Government in Algeria: Revised constitution of February 1989, suspended by military government in January 1992, ended commitment to socialism embodied in National Charter and earlier constitutions. Political system based on strong presidential rule; provides in theory for multiparty system, separation of religious institution and state, and military subordination to civilian authority.

Politics in Algeria: Liberalizing government of President Chadli Benjedid toppled by military in January 1992. Presidency replaced by military-dominated High Council of State. Emergency rule enacted to prevent national electoral victory by Islamist (fundamentalist) movement, spearheaded by Islamic Salvation Front. In January 1994, military named General Lamine Zeroual president; High Council of State abolished. Zeroual to rule in coordination with High Security Council. Political violence and terrorism endemic, including killings of numerous foreigners since 1992. Some legislative functions exercised by National Transitional Council, created in May 1994; 200-member body provided for political party, trade union, professional, and civil service representation.

Judicial System in Algeria : Legal system derived from French and Arabic legal traditions and influenced by socialism. Supreme Court of four chambers reviews application of law by forty-eight provincial courts and lower tribunals. Civilian judicial system effectively replaced by military tribunals in January 1992.

Administrative Divisions in Algeria: Forty-eight provinces administered by centrally appointed governors. In 1994 no elected assemblies existed at national, provincial, or communal level.

Foreign Relations in Algeria: Policy founded on nonalignment, national self-determination, and support for Palestinian Liberation Organization in Arab-Israeli dispute. Membership in League of Arab States and Organization of African Unity. Relations with West improved during 1980s and early 1990s, primarily as result of expanding trade and increasing economic cooperation.

Data as of December 1993 from http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+dz0008%29

Algeria: National Security

NATIONAL SECURITY

Armed Forces in Algeria: In late 1993, consisted of 121,700 total active forces; included army of 105,000; navy of 6,700, with 10,000-member air force; and coast guard of 630. Reserve force of 150,000 at unknown level of readiness. Internal security forces include Gendarmerie Nationale of 24,000, Sûreté Nationale force of 16,000, and 1,200-member Republican Guard Brigade.

Major Tactical Units in Algeria: Army organized into six geographically defined military regions. Bulk of army stationed in populated areas of north and in and near major cities as well as near borders with Morocco and Western Sahara. Major army units in 1993: two armored divisions (each with three tank regiments and one mechanized regiment); two mechanized divisions (each with three mechanized regiments and one tank regiment); number of independent brigades and regiments unclear; five motorized infantry brigades, one airborne division, seven independent artillery battalions, five air defense battalions, and four engineer battalions. Air force in 1993 had 193 combat aircraft, fifty-eight armed helicopters configured in three fighter-ground attack squadrons, eight fighter squadrons, one reconnaissance squadron, one maritime reconnaissance squadron, two transport squadrons, five helicopter squadrons of which three attack squadrons, two transport squadrons, of which one heavy and one medium. Separate air defense force with three brigades for air defense and three regiments with SAM missiles. Navy bases at Mers el Kebir, Algiers, Annaba, and Jijel. Major naval equipment in 1993 consisted of two submarines, three frigates, three corvettes, eleven missile craft, eight patrol craft, one minesweeper, and three amphibious landing ships.

Defense Expenditures in Algeria: 1992 defense budget DA23.0 billion (US$1.05 billion); 1993 defense budget DA29.8 billion (US$1.19 billion); military expenditures per capita in 1989 US$94.

Internal Security in Algeria: Sûreté Nationale, under the Ministry of Interior, Local Communities, Environment, and Administrative Reform, performed most urban police duties. Gendarmerie Nationale, under the Ministry of Interior but considered paramilitary adjunct of armed forces, responsible for rural police matters. Military Security responsible for domestic and foreign intelligence operations.

Data as of December 1993 from http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+dz0009%29

Algeria

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS IN ALGERIA

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Railroads in Algeria: 4,060 kilometers total; 2,616 kilometers standard gauge (1.435 meters); 1,188 kilometers 1.055-meter gauge; 256 kilometers 1.000-meter gauge; 300 kilometers electrified; 215 kilometers double track. System carries passengers but used mainly for freight.

Ports in Algeria: Nine major ports at Algiers, Oran, Annaba, Mostaganem, Arzew, Bejaïa, Skikda, and Jijel. Three largest ports handled 71 percent of traffic in 1991.

Roads in Algeria: More than 90,000 kilometers total; 58,868 kilometers paved; 31,163 kilometers gravel, crushed stone, or unimproved earth. Network unevenly distributed, more developed in northern coastal region; south served by limited number of national roads, mainly trans-Saharan highway.

Airports in Algeria: International airports at Algiers, Oran, Annaba, and Constantine; more than 100 secondary and minor airfields, fifty-three with permanent surface runways.

Telecommunications in Algeria: High-capacity radio-relay and coaxial cable trunk routes linking all major population areas along northern coast. Sahara linked by satellite ground stations to major population centers. Extensive international service based on satellite and submarine coaxial cable transmissions. Some international broadcasts received but domestic broadcast facilities sparse; only larger populated places receive television and radio.

Data as of December 1993 from http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+dz0007%29

THE MODERN THEORY OF AGRICULTURE

Liebig and other chemists have, within the last twenty-five years, endeavored to establish a science of agriculture, based upon a knowledge of the constitution of plants and of soils, and their mutual relations. We propose to give a very condensed account of the general conclusions arrived at.

Cristiano Ronaldo has dismissed any suggestion that struggling Real Madrid are dependent on him, insisting that he alone is not the team’s “saviour”.

Cristiano Ronaldo has been missed by Real Madrid.

Ronaldo enjoyed a fantastic start to the season, netting nine times to help Madrid win their opening seven Primera Division and Champions League games, but he then picked up an ankle injury in the match against Marseille in September that has kept him sidelined for the last five matches.

In those games, Madrid have suffered three defeats, winning just once, and on Tuesday were humiliated 4-0 by third tier side Alcorcon in the first leg of their Copa del Rey last 32 tie.

Those statistics suggest Ronaldo’s absence is being heavily felt by the Spanish giants, but the £80 million man insists Madrid are no one-man side.

“We’re not going through a great moment but neither am I the saviour,” said Ronaldo. “A team is influenced by many and not only one player. I’m eager to play and help my team-mates. I’m convinced that things are going to improve.

“Disasters like the one in Alcorcon have always happened in football, there’s no need to go overboard. It’s gone, we lost. No-one is happy, no-one expected it, the team didn’t play well, but the world doesn’t end because Madrid lost 4-0. We have to lift ourselves and learn from the defeat. The changing room was very sad after the loss, but little by little the atmosphere is improving.”

Madrid’s embarrassment against Alcorcon and their current poor form has heaped pressure on coach Manuel Pellegrini, with sections of the Spanish media suggesting the Chilean could be sacked if the team do not beat Getafe this weekend and AC Milan in the Champions League next week.

When asked about Pellegrini, Ronaldo said in quotes reported by Marca: “I’m happy and when you are happy there is no need to change or talk of others. We have to talk about those who are here, not those who could come.”

Ronaldo, who will also sit out the Getafe and Milan matches, faces another test on his injured ankle next week to see if he might be able to return for the derby with Atletico Madrid or the second leg against Alcorcon.

The former Manchester United man also has international commitments to think about, with Portugal facing Bosnia-Herzegovina in their World Cup play-off next month.

“I would like to play the return leg against Alcorcon, but I have to be 100% ready, both physically and mentally,” added Ronaldo. “Next week I will have a new test and I want to play first with Real Madrid and afterwards with Portugal.”

Webmasters: How to make money with your website

It took me several months of tests and experiments, but now I feel satisfied enough and I think I’m able to give some advices about it.

At the end of this article you’ll find the links to a list of companies which can sponsor your website and some examples within my website. However, I warmly suggest you to read the whole article first (which is not that long, after all) because it contains useful tips about how to advertise on your website.

However, the most important thing when you run a website is passion. If you do that for money, probably your website would be poor (and it will less likely attract visitors). You have to take care of your site and treat it like your beloved child, updating it often, and making it always better. If you think you can place banners here and there and then watch the money pouring in, you are pretty wrong.

Conventional ad banner campaigns

When I decided to put ads on my website, at first I’ve tried to contact some of those companies which serves banners to your website and pay you a commission. I have to say it hasn’t been easy because of the content of my website: for almost all of them, hacking means “piracy and crime”, pure and simple.

Anyway, I eventually have found a company that accepted to put their banners (or better said, banners from their advertisers) on my website. Sadly, I soon realized I was making much less money than expected, because nowadays such companies only pay “per click” (although they often claim they make “per impression” campaigns, which is not true, otherwise they couldn’t be competitive for their advertisers), which means you are only paid for those banners on which your visitors click.

I never believed in CPC (Cost Per Click) campaigns, it’s like giving out free ads: it’s just like Coca-Cola would pay TV commercials only for the people who rush out of their home to go to the grocery store to buy a six cans pack after seeing their ad on TV.
It is obvious that people could buy the product later, and even if they don’t, their brand is promoted anyway.

Furthermore, the “click-thru” (the ratio between published/clicked banners) is always very low: normally ranges from 0.1% to 0.5% in your very lucky days (which means only 1 to 5 visitors every 1000 will click a banner) mostly because often the banners shown are totally unrelated to the content of your website, so that it’s unlikely that your visitors are interested in them. Which means you are “wasting” over 990 visitors every 1000, and after all that you are bothering and boring your visitors with ads they don’t like.
If you are wondering how much money you can get for every click, it ranges from 10 to 20 cents according from how many monthly visitors you have.

In a few words, this kind of advertising works only for large websites with millions of monthly visitors which can make an acceptable amount of money because they are working with big figures. Or, even better, this system works for huge websites, like Altavista or Yahoo!, which can state the rules to advertise on them, usually asking to be paid for every impression, rather than for click.

Affiliate Programs

In my opinion, and in my experience, the best way to make money for webmasters of little or average websites is through “affiliate programs” (someone calls them “associate programs”, it’s the same thing). At the first sight, this system looks even less profitable than CPC campaigns because most of them actually work on a “pay per lead” basis, which means your visitors not only have to click on their banners but also have to buy something or fill an online form to get you credit.
Affiliate programs give you two big advantages, though: first, you can choose what banners you can publish on your website, so that you can make “targeted advertising” and have a higher click-thru ratio; second, they pay higher commissions: some of them give you from 5% to 20% on every sale made by visitors who came from your website. Other companies may pay you only 50 cents, but they gave away free stuff, so that many visitors will probably click on your banners because they don’t have to pay anything.

Which Affiliate Programs work better for you

Remember, you should make targeted advertising on your website: so, if your website it’s about dogs you should advertise stuff for dogs. You can refine targeted advertising even more, if you can find banners related to the subject of single pages or areas of your website: for example, you can advertise dog food if you have a page about nutrition for dogs.
Choose only companies you think are more related with the content of your website, and especially choose only the banners you would click: if they interests you, they probably will be interesting for your visitors as well.

Don’t advertise companies that gives you less than 50 cents or better $1 per lead (for free stuff, or filling forms), or about $5 per lead (other products/services): it’s very hard to make a significative amount of money with them, also doing this you’ll encourage companies to offer higher commissions.

Placing Banners

Don’t put dozen of banners on every page, they only will annoy your visitors, and they’ll be uneffective. As a general rule just put one to the top of the page, and in case one to the bottom.
Long lists of featured items do not enjoy the same success as a few well-recommended and frequently updated choices.

Make a good looking website (possibly with a “professional look”) with an interesting content, and update it often, so that visitors will come back and may be suggest it to other people.

Don’t cheat nor bother your visitors: they are your most valuable resource, and more than everything if they like your website, they see you as a friend or a person they can trust, and it wouldn’t be good if you betray them. Don’t advertise something you think it’s not good or will not satisfy your visitors.

Don’t cheat with your affiliate partners, as well. Besides of moral considerations, you’ll be banned from their programs.

Recommended Programs:

These programs are the ones which seems to work better among the ones I’ve tried, you can join them all, and give a look to what they offer, and may be use all of them in your website, placing their links on your pages.

Amazon
Probably the most known online shop on the Internet. It started as an online bookstore, but now besides books it sells movies, CDs, DVDs, electronic devices, tools, and much more stuff. A good idea is to put links to books and other items related to the subject of a certain webpage on your site, so that your visitors can have more material related to that subject buying such items from your page. As for banners, don’t put a huge list of items, but choose only a few (three or four) relevant ones.
Signup to Amazon

CafePress
This service is not actually an affiliate program, rather it gives you the opportunity to sell stuff (T-shirts, sweat-shirts, mugs, mousepads…) with your logo on it. It’s a bit like when big companies license their logos (this operation is called “branding”). So you can sell your merchandising directly from your website.
You probably wouldn’t make a lot of money from it, unless your website is very popular, but it’s a nice addon to your website, and it definitely worths it.
Signup to CafePress

Evidence Eliminator
This program works well only if you have a good traffic and your website contains controversial material. Otherwise I won’t recommend it.
Signup to Evidence Eliminator

Beware of these programs!

I won’t recommend you these programs: LinkShare (unreliable with payments), everyone.net (problems with payments), CyberBounty (very dangerous contract: you can’t be paid at all, and it may even happen you owe money to them!), CJ – Commission Junction (the program itself is not bad, but many of its advertisers are not reliable).

MAKE YOUR MONEY NOW.

What is Back Pain?

Back Pain is also called: Backache or Lumbago

If you’ve ever groaned, “Oh, my aching back!”, you are not alone. According to MedlinePlus, Back pain is one of the most common medical problems, affecting 8 out of 10 people at some point during their lives. Back pain can range from a dull, constant ache to a sudden, sharp pain. Acute back pain comes on suddenly and usually lasts from a few days to a few weeks. Back pain is called chronic if it lasts for more than three months.

Most back pain goes away on its own, though it may take awhile. Taking over-the-counter pain relievers and resting can help. However, staying in bed for more than 1 or 2 days can make it worse.

Acute or short-term low back pain generally lasts from a few days to a few weeks. Most acute back pain is the result of trauma to the lower back or a disorder such as arthritis. Pain from trauma may be caused by a sports injury, work around the house or in the garden, or a sudden jolt such as a car accident or other stress on spinal bones and tissues. Symptoms of back pain may range from muscle ache to shooting or stabbing pain, limited flexibility and range of motion, or an inability to stand straight. Chronic back pain is pain that persists for more than 3 months. It is often progressive and the cause can be difficult to determine.

Is there any treatment for Back Pain?

According to National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), “most low back pain can be treated without surgery. Treatment involves using over-the-counter pain relievers to reduce discomfort and anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce inflammation.  The goal of treatment is to restore proper function and strength to the back, and prevent recurrence of the injury.  Back Pain medications are often used to treat acute and chronic low back pain. Effective pain relief may involve a combination of prescription drugs and over-the-counter remedies.  Although the use of cold and hot compresses has never been scientifically proven to quickly resolve low back injury, compresses may help reduce pain and inflammation and allow greater mobility for some individuals.  Bed rest is recommended for only 1–2 days at most.  Individuals should resume activities as soon as possible.  Exercise may be the most effective way to speed recovery from low back pain and help strengthen back and abdominal muscles.   In the most serious cases, when the condition does not respond to other therapies, surgery may relieve pain caused by back problems or serious musculoskeletal injuries.”

What is the prognosis for Back Pain?

NINDS researchers observed that most back Pain  patients with back pain recover without residual functional loss, but individuals should contact a doctor if there is not a noticeable reduction in pain and inflammation after 72 hours of self-care.  Recurring back pain resulting from improper body mechanics or other nontraumatic causes is often preventable. Engaging in exercises that don’t jolt or strain the back, maintaining correct posture, and lifting objects properly can help prevent injuries. Many work-related injuries are caused or aggravated by stressors such as heavy lifting, vibration, repetitive motion, and awkward posture. Applying ergonomic principles — designing furniture and tools to protect the body from injury — at home and in the workplace can greatly reduce the risk of back injury and help maintain a healthy back.

What research is being done of Back Pain?

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) and other institutes of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) conduct pain research in laboratories at the NIH and also support pain research through grants to major medical institutions.  Currently, researchers are examining the use of different drugs to effectively treat back pain, in particular, chronic pain that has lasted at least 6 months. Other studies are comparing different health care approaches to the management of acute low back pain (standard care versus chiropractic, acupuncture, or massage therapy). These studies are measuring symptom relief, restoration of function, and patient satisfaction. Other research is comparing standard surgical treatments to the most commonly used standard nonsurgical treatments to measure changes in health-related quality of life among patients suffering from spinal stenosis.

What Are the Causes of Back Pain?

There are many causes of back pain. Mechanical problems with the back itself can cause pain. Examples are:

• Disc breakdown
• Spasms
• Tense muscles
• Ruptured discs

Injuries from sprains, fractures, accidents, and falls can result in back pain.

Back pain can also occur with some conditions and diseases, such as:

• Scoliosis
• Spondylolisthesis
• Arthritis
• Spinal stenosis
• Pregnancy
• Kidney stones
• Infections
• Endometriosis
• Fibromyalgia

Other possible causes of back pain are infections, tumors, or stress.

Can Back Pain Be Prevented?

The best things you can do to prevent back pain are:

• Exercise often and keep your back muscles strong.
• Maintain a healthy weight or lose weight if you weigh too much. To have strong bones, you need to get enough calcium and vitamin D every day.
• Try to stand up straight and avoid heavy lifting when you can. If you do lift something heavy, bend your legs and keep your back straight.

When Should I See a Doctor for Back Pain?

You should see a doctor if you have:

• Numbness or tingling
• Severe pain that does not improve with rest
• Pain after a fall or an injury

• Pain plus any of these problems:

  • Trouble urinating
  • Weakness
  • Numbness in your legs
  • Fever
  • Weight loss when not on a diet.

How Is Back Pain Diagnosed?

To diagnose back pain, your doctor will take your medical history and do a physical exam. Your doctor may order other tests, such as:

• X rays
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Computed tomography (CT) scan
• Blood tests.

Medical tests may not show the cause of your back pain. Many times, the cause of back pain is never known. Back pain can get better even if you do not know the cause.

What Is the Difference Between Acute and Chronic Pain?

Acute pain starts quickly and lasts less than 6 weeks. It is the most common type of back pain. Acute pain may be caused by things like falling, being tackled in football, or lifting something heavy. Chronic pain lasts for more than 3 months and is much less common than acute pain.

How Is Back Pain Treated?

Treatment for back pain depends on what kind of pain you have. Acute back pain usually gets better without any treatment, but you may want to take acetaminophen, aspirin, or ibuprofen to help ease the pain. Exercise and surgery are not usually used to treat acute back pain.

Following are some types of treatments for chronic back pain.

Hot or Cold Packs (or Both)

Hot or cold packs can soothe sore, stiff backs. Heat reduces muscle spasms and pain. Cold helps reduce swelling and numbs deep pain. Using hot or cold packs may relieve pain, but this treatment does not fix the cause of chronic back pain.

Exercise

Proper exercise can help ease chronic pain but should not be used for acute back pain. Your doctor or physical therapist can tell you the best types of exercise to do.

Medications

The following are the main types of medications used for back pain:

• Analgesic medications are over-the-counter drugs such as acetaminophen and aspirin or prescription pain medications.
• Topical analgesics are creams, ointments, and salves rubbed onto the skin over the site of pain.
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are drugs that reduce both pain and swelling. NSAIDs include over-the-counter drugs such as ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen sodium. Your doctor may prescribe stronger NSAIDs.
• Muscle relaxants and some antidepressants have also been prescribed for chronic back pain, but it is not yet known if they work for back pain.

Behavior Changes

You can learn to lift, push, and pull with less stress on your back. Changing how you exercise, relax, and sleep can help lessen back pain. Eating a healthy diet and not smoking also help.

Injections

Your doctor may suggest steroid or numbing shots to lessen your pain.

Complementary and Alternative Medical Treatments

When back pain becomes chronic or when other treatments do not relieve it, some people try complementary and alternative treatments. The most common of these treatments are:

• Manipulation. Professionals use their hands to adjust or massage the spine or nearby tissues.
• Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). A small box over the painful area sends mild electrical pulses to nerves. Studies have shown that TENS treatments are not always effective for reducing pain.
• Acupuncture. This Chinese practice uses thin needles to relieve pain and restore health. Acupunture may be effective when used as a part of a comprehensive treatment plan for low back pain.
• Acupressure. A therapist applies pressure to certain places in the body to relieve pain. Acupressure has not been well studied for back pain.

Surgery

Most people with chronic back pain do not need surgery. It is usually used for chronic back pain if other treatments do not work. You may need surgery if you have:

• Herniated disc. When one or more of the discs that cushion the bones of the spine are damaged, the jelly-like center of the disc leaks, causing pain.
• Spinal stenosis. This condition causes the spinal canal to become narrow.
• Spondylolisthesis. This occurs when one or more bones of the spine slip out of place.
• Vertebral fractures. A fracture can be caused by a blow to the spine or by crumbling of the bone due to osteoporosis.
• Degenerative disc disease. As people age, some have discs that break down and cause severe pain.

Rarely, when back pain is caused by a tumor, an infection, or a nerve root problem called cauda equina syndrome, surgery is needed right away to ease the pain and prevent more problems.

What Kind of Research Is Being Done?

Back pain researchers are studying:

• Surgical versus nonsurgical treatment for back pain
• The best treatments for low back pain
• How well lumbar fusion surgery works for disc pain
• How often there are problems after lumbar fusion surgery
• Loss of movement and low back pain
• Ways for people with acute low back pain to feel better
• The role of nerves in low back pain
• Ways to use the Internet to teach people about back pain.

Good News for people with chronic low Back Pain

WEDNESDAY, Oct. 7 (HealthDay News) — Good news for people with chronic low back pain: About four in 10 will recover within a year, according to a study that challenges the common belief that recovery from this type of pain is unlikely.

The Australian study included about 400 patients who sought treatment for acute low back pain at primary care clinics and had not recovered after 90 days. Acute low back pain was defined as pain that had lasted more than 24 hours but less than two weeks.

During telephone surveys nine and 12 months later, the patients were asked about their pain and disability levels and work status. Complete recovery was reported by 35 percent of patients within nine months and by 41 percent within a year, the researchers noted.

The findings show that the rate of recovery from chronic low back pain is higher than previously reported and that the prognosis for these patients isn’t uniformly poor, said lead study author Dr. Luciola Menezes Costa of the University of Sydney. These findings should prove reassuring for patients because it shows that it’s possible to recover from a new episode of low chronic back pain, the researchers added.

The study appears in the Oct. 7 online edition of the BMJ.

While these findings seem encouraging, much longer follow-up of patients with chronic low back pain is needed in order to learn more about how different patterns emerge and in what order, and why some people recover while others have episodic pain for years or long-term constant pain, two researchers from Keele University in the U.K. wrote in an accompanying editorial.

SOURCE: BMJ, news release, Oct. 7, 2009

Halloween

According to wikipedia, Halloween (also spelled Hallowe’en) is an annual holiday celebrated on October 31. eIt has roots in the Celtic festival of Samhain and the Christian holy day of All Saints. It is largely a secular celebration but some have expressed strong feelings about perceived religious overtones.
The day is often associated with orange and black, and is strongly associated with symbols like the jack-o’-lantern. Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, wearing costumes and attending costume parties, ghost tours, bonfires, visiting haunted attractions, pranks, telling scary stories, and watching horror films.

History of Halloween

The article below from www.history.com is a detail of the origin of Halloween.  It might be interesting for us to know how Halloween originated.

Origin of Halloween according to history.com

Halloween’s origins date back to the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain (pronounced sow-in). The Celts, who lived 2,000 years ago in the area that is now Ireland, the United Kingdom, and northern France, celebrated their new year on November 1. This day marked the end of summer and the harvest and the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time of year that was often associated with human death. Celts believed that on the night before the new year, the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead became blurred. On the night of October 31, they celebrated Samhain, when it was believed that the ghosts of the dead returned to earth. In addition to causing trouble and damaging crops, Celts thought that the presence of the otherworldly spirits made it easier for the Druids, or Celtic priests, to make predictions about the future. For a people entirely dependent on the volatile natural world, these prophecies were an important source of comfort and direction during the long, dark winter.

To commemorate the event, Druids built huge sacred bonfires, where the people gathered to burn crops and animals as sacrifices to the Celtic deities.

During the celebration, the Celts wore costumes, typically consisting of animal heads and skins, and attempted to tell each other’s fortunes. When the celebration was over, they re-lit their hearth fires, which they had extinguished earlier that evening, from the sacred bonfire to help protect them during the coming winter.

By A.D. 43, Romans had conquered the majority of Celtic territory. In the course of the four hundred years that they ruled the Celtic lands, two festivals of Roman origin were combined with the traditional Celtic celebration of Samhain.

The first was Feralia, a day in late October when the Romans traditionally commemorated the passing of the dead. The second was a day to honor Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit and trees. The symbol of Pomona is the apple and the incorporation of this celebration into Samhain probably explains the tradition of “bobbing” for apples that is practiced today on Halloween.

By the 800s, the influence of Christianity had spread into Celtic lands. In the seventh century, Pope Boniface IV designated November 1 All Saints’ Day, a time to honor saints and martyrs. It is widely believed today that the pope was attempting to replace the Celtic festival of the dead with a related, but church-sanctioned holiday. The celebration was also called All-hallows or All-hallowmas (from Middle English Alholowmesse meaning All Saints’ Day) and the night before it, the night of Samhain, began to be called All-hallows Eve and, eventually, Halloween. Even later, in A.D. 1000, the church would make November 2 All Souls’ Day, a day to honor the dead. It was celebrated similarly to Samhain, with big bonfires, parades, and dressing up in costumes as saints, angels, and devils. Together, the three celebrations, the eve of All Saints’, All Saints’, and All Souls’, were called Hallowmas.

Halloween Comes to America

As European immigrants came to America, they brought their varied Halloween customs with them. Because of the rigid Protestant belief systems that characterized early New England, celebration of Halloween in colonial times was extremely limited there.

It was much more common in Maryland and the southern colonies. As the beliefs and customs of different European ethnic groups, as well as the American Indians, meshed, a distinctly American version of Halloween began to emerge. The first celebrations included “play parties,” public events held to celebrate the harvest, where neighbors would share stories of the dead, tell each other’s fortunes, dance, and sing. Colonial Halloween festivities also featured the telling of ghost stories and mischief-making of all kinds. By the middle of the nineteenth century, annual autumn festivities were common, but Halloween was not yet celebrated everywhere in the country.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, America was flooded with new immigrants. These new immigrants, especially the millions of Irish fleeing Ireland’s potato famine of 1846, helped to popularize the celebration of Halloween nationally. Taking from Irish and English traditions, Americans began to dress up in costumes and go house to house asking for food or money, a practice that eventually became today’s “trick-or-treat” tradition. Young women believed that, on Halloween, they could divine the name or appearance of their future husband by doing tricks with yarn, apple parings, or mirrors.

In the late 1800s, there was a move in America to mold Halloween into a holiday more about community and neighborly get-togethers, than about ghosts, pranks, and witchcraft.

At the turn of the century, Halloween parties for both children and adults became the most common way to celebrate the day. Parties focused on games, foods of the season, and festive costumes. Parents were encouraged by newspapers and community leaders to take anything “frightening” or “grotesque” out of Halloween celebrations. Because of their efforts, Halloween lost most of its superstitious and religious overtones by the beginning of the twentieth century.

By the 1920s and 1930s, Halloween had become a secular, but community-centered holiday, with parades and town-wide parties as the featured entertainment. Despite the best efforts of many schools and communities, vandalism began to plague Halloween celebrations in many communities during this time. By the 1950s, town leaders had successfully limited vandalism and Halloween had evolved into a holiday directed mainly at the young. Due to the high numbers of young children during the fifties baby boom, parties moved from town civic centers into the classroom or home, where they could be more easily accommodated. Between 1920 and 1950, the centuries-old practice of trick-or-treating was also revived. Trick-or-treating was a relatively inexpensive way for an entire community to share the Halloween celebration. In theory, families could also prevent tricks being played on them by providing the neighborhood children with small treats. A new American tradition was born, and it has continued to grow. Today, Americans spend an estimated $6.9 billion annually on Halloween, making it the country’s second largest commercial holiday.

Source: http://www.history.com/content/halloween/